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Teaching Tomorrow's CLASSICS
Mary Ann Tighe and Charles Avinger
When we talk about teaching a classic, what literary works do we consider? Great Expectations, The Scarlet Letter, or perhapsa Shakespearean drama. There are, of course, some criteria that wetraditionally use to determine whether or not a literary selection can beconsidered a classic. First, has it stood the test of time? Second, does itspeak to us across time? That is, does it confront the universal concerns, theenduring dilemmas that are a part of human existence? And third, does it have aunique beauty of style and structure that causes it to endure? These are highstandards. Can young adult literature meet these criteria? Since contemporaryyoung adult literature came into being in the 1960s, realistically itsendurance record cannot exceed thirty years; but we can evaluate and makepredictions. And we predict that literary classics will emerge from theabundant array of young adult novels published during the last thirty years. Inboth their original written form and in outstanding film adaptations, theseworks will endure because they do speak across time; they address the universaland enduring concerns of humanity. And they will endure because their authors,as well as the filmmakers who have brought them to the screen, have createdworks of unique beauty of style and structure.
The literary critic Northrop Frye reminds us that "All themes and charactersand stories that you encounter in literature belong to one big interlockingfamily . . . . You keep associating your literary experiences together: you'realways being reminded of some other story you read or movie you saw orcharacter that impressed you" (Moss and Stott, 1986, p. 1). Young adult novelsoften follow the traditional patterns of folktales or hero tales, ensuring notonly that they are a part of this "interlocking family," but also that they arean effective transition, serving as a bridge between children's literature andthe classics.
According to Moss and Stott, the plots in literature for children can becategorized as either circular or linear, depending upon the type of journeyundertaken by the hero/heroine. In a circular way, the hero sets out on a questor journey and eventually returns home but in a new and mature capacity, whilein a linear journey, the heroine undertakes a quest and arrives at a new andmore satisfactory destination (1986, pp. 2-3). Two contemporary young adultnovels illustrate how clearly their authors have followed these traditionalliterary patterns while working with their own unique style and telling theirown compelling story.
Folktales
The Witch of Blackbird Pond by Elizabeth George Speare is aNewbery Award-winning book of historical fiction, but it is also a retelling ofthe traditional folktale of Cinderella. Moss and Stott have identified thecommon characteristics of folktales. They are short, highly stylized storieswith stock characters, events, and settings, keeping the same basic form andcontent, but being modified by different cultures. Certain motifs such as thewicked stepmother and the lost or mistreated child reoccur. The heroes/heroinesare generally left alone to make a dangerous journey into an unknown world,encountering evil creatures and dangerous obstacles while being helped by fairygodmothers or talking animals to reach a satisfactory conclusion. Throughouttheir quest the protagonists display noble virtues and character traits such ascourage, love, and forgiveness (1986, pp. 8-11).
In the folktale Cinderella, the heroine of noble birth is forced by her wickedstepmother and evil stepsisters to assume the role of servant in her father'shousehold. She scrubs the floor, scours the dishes, cleans the bedrooms, andsleeps on a bed of straw in the garret. When her fairy godmother arrives, shefinds Cinderella weeping because she cannot go to the ball. With a wave of hermagic wand, she provides beautiful clothes and elegant transportation to takeher to the ball where she wins the heart of the prince. Cinderella is so goodand kind that she forgives her stepsisters and arranges for them to wednobility and to live at court.
Kit Tyler, the heroine of The Witch of Blackbird Pond, is born into awealthy and aristocratic family and grows up in the paradise-like setting ofBarbados. But when her grandfather dies, she is left alone and penniless, and,at the age of sixteen, she travels aboard a sailing vessel to Connecticut tolive with her mother's sister and a family she has never met. She discovers anew world where the people, the customs, and the geography are rigid and coldand forbidding, unlike the warm, sunny world she left behind.
In New England she does not encounter a wicked stepmother, but Uncle MatthewWood is a stern Puritan, and Aunt Rachel is his obedient wife. Her cousins,Judith and Mercy, are not evil, but Judith is jealous of Kit's fine clothes andthe obvious attraction she holds for William Ashby. Kit is not forced to sweepup the cinders and live in the kitchen, but she is expected to put aside herfine clothes and assume her share of the family duties, that is, to makeherself useful.
By the end of that first day the word useful had taken on an alarming meaning.Work in that household never ceased, and it called for skill and patience,qualities Kit did not seem to possess. There was meat to be chopped, andvegetables to prepare for the midday meal. The pewter mugs had to be scouredwith reeds and fine sand. There was a great kettle of soap boiling over a firejust behind the house, and . . . Judith set Kit to tend the stirring while shereadied the soap barrel. (p. 47)
Both Kit's soap and her corn pudding turn out lumpy, and at night she shareswith Judith a cold bedroom on the upper floor of the house.
Kit does not have a fairy godmother, but she does meet Hannah Tupper, anelderly Quaker woman living in the Great Meadow on the outskirts of the Puritancommunity of Wethersfield. She is the so-called witch of Blackbird Pond. Hannahdoes not transform Kit literally with fine clothes and an elegant carriage, butshe does give her something important -- the courage to face her life in NewEngland. When Kit displeases the local authorities and loses her position asschoolmistress, she runs away to the Great Meadow where Hannah finds herweeping.
All at once, with an instinctive quickening of her senses, Kit knew that shewas not alone, that someone was very close. She started up. Only a few feetaway a woman was sitting watching her, a very old woman with short-croppedwhite hair and faded, almost colorless eyes set deep in an incredibly wrinkledface. (p. 85)
Hannah has no magic wand, but she calms Kit with a glass of goat's milk and ablueberry corncake. Then she shows her a flower, which had traveled all the wayfrom Africa and now blooms in her New England garden. Hannah has worked nomagic, but Kit knows what she has to do: "Only one thing must be done beforeKit could truly be at peace, and without speaking a word Hannah had given herthe strength to do it. Straight up Broad Street she walked, up the path to asquare frame house, and knocked boldly on the door of Mr. Eleazer Kimberley"(pp. 90-91). Kit is, thereby, reinstated as school mistress.
Kit has two suitors, each vying for the role of Prince Charming. William Ashbyis wealthy and attentive and offers her release from a life of drudgery: "AndWilliam Ashby was the only person in Wethersfield who did not expect her to beuseful, who demanded nothing, and offered his steady admiration as proof thatshe was still of some worth" (p. 71). But Nat Eaton, the son of the captain ofthe sailing vessel that brought Kit to New England, eventually wins her heart,not in a ballroom but in a courtroom, where Kit encounters the forces of evilin the person of Goodwife Cruff, who accuses her of witchcraft. When Kit isbrought to trial, Nat provides the surprise witness who proves her innocence.Rescuing Kit from a life of drudgery at home and from danger in the courtroom,he takes her for his wife. Although they will spend part of each year sailingto Barbados, their home will be in New England, and Kit has completed herlinear journey to a new life and a new relationship. Kit's cousins are notabandoned. When Kit releases William Ashby, he is free to marry Judith. Andmuch to Kit's delight, Mercy, too, finds the perfect mate. Like the happyending in some versions of "Cinderella," all three girls are wed, and the bookends with the reader believing that they will live "happily ever after."
Hero Tales
Another traditional member of the family of stories is the hero tale,tales of heroes and heroines who fulfill their quests in a grand andmagnificent manner. Heroes, according to Moss and Stott, are set apart atbirth; there is something mysterious and/or significant about their origin. Asthey grow up they remain apart from other children; they have a unique sort ofeducation. As leaders, they display courage and face overwhelming physicaltasks, but they are not perfect; they also have flaws. As the tale ends, theydie, but not before promising their followers they will return (1986, pp.162-164). In the literary hero tale, when the author is known, the heroesfrequently enjoy the companionship of a close friend, but, nevertheless, in theend, they are doomed to be lonely (Moss and Stott, 1986, pp. 415-416).
King Arthur is a typical hero, and his story has been told by many authors. Asa child, his parentage is shrouded in mystery; as a youth, he is educated byMerlin the Magician; as the leader of the Knights of the Round Table, he isfair and courageous; and his closest friend is Lancelot, a fellow knight. ButArthur, betrayed by his wife and Lancelot, must stand alone. He fails to seethe evil that is corrupting his own followers, and, before he dies from thewounds he received in battle, he promises to return and restore the kingdom.
In her novel, On Fortune's Wheel, Cynthia Voigt has created a heroine toserve as the focus of a hero tale set in a mystical kingdom during the middleages. Birle, born the daughter of an innkeeper, is one of the "people" asopposed to the nobility. But she has a unique education. As Merlin served asArthur's tutor, teaching him the ways of a wise ruler, so Birle's grandparentsteach her to read and write, a skill common to nobility but forbidden to thepeople. As her grandmother shows her an old map and begins to identify theletters printed on it, Birle is astonished and frightened.
"You mean reading." Birle looked from one old face to the other, hoping theywould deny it. She knew now why it had been kept secret. Only the Lords couldknow how to read.
"Aye," Grandma said. "And writing." (pp. 17-18)
Birle also inherited her grandparents' spirit of adventure. When, late atnight, she spies someone trying to steal the inn's boat, she leaps aboard,determined to rescue their property. Thus begins her quest, for she is happy toescape her impending marriage and eager to find love and adventure with Orien,the young and handsome lord who has taken their boat. As they journey down theriver, their small boat goes down in a storm. They escape to a large rock,awaiting either death or rescue. After many days, they are sighted by a ship'scaptain who brings them aboard only for the purpose of selling them asslaves.
While held prisoner, Birle befriends a fellow captive. When she first meetsYul, she is filled with both fear and pity, for he is a giant with limitedmental abilities. But Birle is kind to Yul; she gives him part of her bread,and he does not forget. He remains loyal to the end. As Don Quixote had hisSancho Panza, Birle has Yul, "the monster," who serves as friend andprotector.
When they reach land, Orien is sold to a local craftsman, while Birle and Yulare purchased by Joaquim, the Philosopher. Birle, although a slave, isfortunate. Joaquim is not a cruel master: Birle is well-fed and clothed. WithYul following closely behind her, she moves freely about the city. When Joaquimlearns that she can read, he makes her his amanuensis. As a secretary, Birlerecords his observations and notes on healing plants and herbs. As hisassistant, her unique education continues as she learns much about the healingpowers of plants.
While she continues to learn and thrive, Orien's fate worsens. He is sold towork in the mines. Although he escapes and makes his way to Joaquim's house,the brand on his face (which marks him as a miner) has become badly infected.He is unconscious when Birle finds him, but she is determined to heal him andto carry him to freedom. The city is at war. It is not the Trojan War, but onceagain a kidnapped maiden is the cause of the fighting. As Paris stole Helen,Corbel has stolen the lady Celinde, a young girl whose father is now attackingCorbel's city. In the confusion, Birle and Yul escape, taking Orien with them.In a scene that is reminiscent of Aeneas carrying his ancient father on hisback while escaping the burning city of Troy, Yul carries Orien's feverish andunconscious body as they escape the besieged city. As they travel, Birle usesher knowledge of herbs to begin the healing process. But, when they arecaptured by Damall, a traveling showman, she is forced to leave Yul behind aspart of his "exhibit." In return, she and Orien are allowed to continue theirjourney.
Orien recovers, and they eventually reach the Kingdom, where he reigns as Earl.Although Orien claims Birle as his wife, she has known what it means to be freeand independent, and she is not happy as the Earl's Lady. Even though she isexpecting their child, she leaves behind the society and ceremony of the courtand returns to the land once held by her grandparents. She is determined tolive alone and to raise their child alone. Here she plants herbs and uses herknowledge of them to heal the sick. But Orien finds her. He has rescued Yul andrenounced his life at court. Unlike the traditional hero, Birle does not remainalone and die at the end of her quest. Instead, she completes a circularjourney and begins a new life with Orien and their child.
Will these novels become literary classics? You will recall that beyond thetest of time, a classic must address universal concerns, the enduring dilemmasthat are a part of human existence. Both novels that we reviewed trace theprotagonist's search for identity, for her role as an independent adult. Asthey make their journeys, they confront evil and must make choices anddetermine what is right and good and what is evil and wrong. Surely these areconflicts and problems that endure across the ages. And third, a classic mustpossess beauty of style and structure. While both authors have their own uniquestyles, each has created a novel that follows one of the most basic literarypatterns. These young adult novels build on the foundation of folktales andhero tales from childhood and prepare students for the literary classics of theadult reader.
Films
Young adult literature not only represents a bridge between children'sliterature and adult literature; it can also represent a link between literaryanalysis, the development of critical thinking skills, and what is often called"visual literacy" -- the study of film as literary text. Young adult literatureis extremely compatible with classroom use of film and videotape, which canstimulate student interest, motivating even reluctant students to read. It isrelatively easy to establish a rationale for the study of film as literature.Both film and literature are "capable . . . of a coherent and reasonedtreatment of a subject," both use words to communicate (even silent films,which have subtitles), and both "tell stories and make reference to `imaginaryworlds' " (Brown, 1985, pp. 22-31). Perhaps most importantly as far as youngpeople are concerned:
. . . they also share the very same basic appeal. Most of us have always goneto movies for the same reason we read; for escape, for fantasy, for theopportunity to identify with -- even to transform ourselves into -- other humanbeings for awhile and vicariously participate in their lives. (Brown, 1985, p.39)
One example of a movie adaptation that illustrates the benefits of young adultliterature and film is the 1983 production of S.E. Hinton's novel TheOutsiders. Directed by Francis Ford Coppola (The Godfather,Apocalypse Now), this film tells Hinton's story of youthful alienationand conflict through a combination of powerful visual images, stylishdirection, and good ensemble acting by a talented group of young actors, nearlyall of whom became major stars in the late 1980s. A well-made film with strongappeal to teenagers, The Outsiders affords opportunities for analysisand interpretation similar to those found in "the classics." High schoolclasses could consider the following questions during and after viewing thefilm.
1. Characterize Ponyboy and Dallas. How are they alike in spite of superficialdifferences?
2. What are the values of the Greasers and the Socs? Why do the two groupsfind themselves in conflict?
3. What does the film say about family relationships? About friendship?Compare the conflict between the Greasers and the Socs to a division betweentwo other groups you know of. Are some of the basic causes of conflict the samein both cases?
4. How does the film present the Greaser's world as a dangerous, threateningplace? What visual images support this impression? Explain the visual symbolismin Ponyboy and Johnny's journey following the murder. What meanings do thegolden sunlight, the spider web, the reflections in the pond, and the rabbitconvey?
5. How can Ponyboy's journey be considered circular? In what ways are hisunderstanding of his relationship with Steve and Darry more mature than when hebegan his journey? (Note that the circular structure of Ponyboy's journey issimilar to that of Birle's journey in On Fortune's Wheel -- aninteresting point for analysis if both works are studied in the same class.)
As these questions suggest, the film version of The Outsiders not onlyretains the thematic concerns of the novel but also expresses these concerns inboth cinematic and literary terms. Students who watch the film and analyze itthus have the opportunity to study Hinton's plot, characters, and theme whilealso considering how film can express meaning in a creative way. The elegant,poetic style and structure of Coppola's film thoughtfully and faithfullyreflects the beauty of Hinton's prose; Coppola simply uses visual images andcompositions instead of words on the page to achieve the effect. The themes ofalienation and social conflict in The Outsiders are similar to thosefound in classic works of adult literature such as Ellison's InvisibleMan and Chopin's The Awakening. By studying the film adaptation orHinton's original novel, students are considering the same kinds of issues anddoing the same kinds of literary analysis they would in the study of adultliterature. However, because the film and novel cast these issues in termsfamiliar and important to young people, their study of film and literature isfacilitated, both comprehension and interest levels improved.
Another important young adult novel for classic status is Robert Cormier'sThe Chocolate War. The 1989 film adaptation combines dark humor andvisceral drama to examine social and psychological tensions at a religiousboys' school. The plot centers on freshman Jerry Renault's refusal toparticipate in Trinity School's annual fund-raising chocolate sale. Thisseemingly trivial situation offers Cormier a chance to explore fundamentalhuman issues including conformity, the need for belonging, obedience toauthority, and intolerance -- the same kinds of questions all great literatureexamines, but from an adolescent perspective. Through an unflinchingexamination of problems and conflicts specific to adolescents, the storychallenges values and assumptions that pervade our society -- indeed, allsocieties throughout time. Jerry's experiences at Trinity School are no lessharrowing than Kit Tyler's, Ponyboy's, or Birle's. His journey is psychologicalrather than literal.
Jerry initially refuses to sell chocolates because of intimidation by theVigils, a secret society at Trinity. The Vigils terrorize freshmen intocarrying out "assignments" ranging from harmless pranks to demeaning,threatening tasks; Jerry's "assignment" is to frustrate the tyrannical BrotherLeon, school administrator of the sale, by refusing to participate for tendays. Thus the film is able to dissect the ethics of secret societies of thekind found in high schools and colleges. Since many young adults seemfascinated by such societies and eager to join them, this film offers a goodopportunity for students to clarify their values on this issue through literaryanalysis. Consider:
1. The Vigils make much use of secrecy, humiliation, ritual, tradition, trialsand tests, cruelty, and harassment. Are these methods typical of secretsocieties such as high school and college fraternities, or are the Vigils anexception? Why would a society like the Vigils adopt these particular methodsof control over their members? (Students who belong to fraternities or who planto join one will undoubtedly claim the Vigils are aberrant; students who arenot part of such organizations may be unwilling to speak out about similaritiesbetween the film and their experience. Both groups, however, will be forced tothink about these issues, regardless of how they respond.)
2. Characters in the film continually refer to the importance of "biggerthings": the Vigils, the chocolate sale, school spirit, the school itself,tradition. What values does one character reveal when he says, "The assignmentis more important than anything, understand? More than you, me, or the school.Got that?" Is there merit in his view? Why or why not? The assignment inquestion is a ridiculous prank. Would it make any difference if the nature ofthe assignment were different?
3. Think about the importance society places on ritual and tradition. Whatsocial and psychological functions do they serve?
While cast in a specific setting -- a private religious high school -- Jerry's"war" leads us to ask questions about the relationship between the individualand society. A class studying comparative literature might consider how Jerry'sactions would have been viewed in ancient Greece and Rome, in NeoclassicalFrance, or during the period of the French and American revolutions. Thenovel's universality is preserved in the film version, again supporting theargument that it is destined for classic status.
From an artistic and literary perspective, the choices that Cormier anddirector Keith Gordon make are interesting. The title itself seems acontradiction in terms -- whoever heard of going to war over chocolates?When students consider the questionable and even trivial motives that haveoften led to real wars, the symbolic appropriateness of the chocolates becomesclear. Students can also address other questions from a literary standpoint:
1. What is Brother Leon's apparent motivation as he questions Bailey aboutcheating? What does Leon believe his real motive is? What is the likelyeffect of this questioning on Bailey, and is it an effect Leon desires?
2. What is the significance of Trinity's being a private religious school?Would the drama play out differently in a different educational setting such asa public high school? a military school?
3. Explain the image of Brother Leon's face half-covered by a shadow. What isthe significance of the picture of Jesus next to Bolo when he talks to Archieon the phone?
4. Hypocrisy is rampant in this story. What are some examples of hypocrisy onthe part of teachers and students? Why is it so pervasive?
5. The ending of the film is radically different from that of the book. Is therevised ending a typical "Hollywood ending" designed to increase profits, or isit artistically valid in the context of the story's themes? Why?
6. Director Gordon often departs radically from traditional styles offilmmaking. In what ways is the film different from other movies? Do thesestylistic differences accurately reflect the style and structure of Cormier'snovel? Do they enhance or inhibit clear understanding of his themes?
The imagery, symbolism, and themes of The Chocolate War are immediatelyaccessible to students because they are familiar. Studying this film as a workof literature can help prepare students for the study of adult literaturecontaining many of the same ideas but more difficult to comprehendbecause of less familiar images, symbols, and language.
The film version of The Chocolate War is rated R, but probably should berated PG-13, for some profanity, violence, and sexual dialogue. Depending onthe school, it could probably be shown in a senior class, but teachers shouldpreview it before deciding whether and how to incorporate it into theirclassrooms. The Outsiders is rated PG, and, while certainly tame by1990s standards, might be objectionable to some parents because of language andviolence, as well as its depiction of teenage drinking, fighting, criminalbehavior, and family problems. In both cases, individual judgment on the partof teachers is recommended.
Young adult literature, whether in printed or visual form, is not only apowerful motivational tool but also a genre worthy of literary study. Whatbetter place for it than the secondary classroom, where often poor andunmotivated readers can be engaged by writing that speaks directly to theirneeds and concerns while addressing issues of universal human importance. If weview literature not as discrete categories labeled "good literature" and"popular entertainment" (or, as many put it, "art" and "trash") but as acontinuum beginning with fairy tales and fables and culminating in prose andpoetry that captures the full range of adult experience and insight, we can seethat young adult literature not only is worthy of study in its own right, butalso forms a necessary bridge between the literary worlds of children andadults. The wandering heroes and heroines of young adult literature havefinally found a home -- in the English classroom.
References
Brown, Joy Gould. Double Exposure: Fiction into Film. NewAmerican Library, 1985.
Cormier, Robert. The Chocolate War. Dell, 1974.
Hinton, S.E. The Outsiders. Dell, 1967.
Speare, Elizabeth George. The Witch of Blackbird Pond. Dell, 1971.
Voigt, Cynthia. On Fortune's Wheel. Fawcett Juniper-Ballantine Books,1990.
Mary Ann Tighe and Charles Avinger teach in the Department of English atTroy State University in Troy, Alabama.
