JTE v2n2 - Productivity, the Workforce, and Technology Education
Volume 2, Number 2
Spring 1991
Productivity, the Workforce, and Technology Education
Scott D. Johnson
While the United States premier leader
in industrial strength and in-
fluence, countries previously unable to com-
pete with the United States in both
technological and economic arenas have made
drastic changes in the way they develop and
produce goods. Through modernization of
their factories and by using innovative or-
ganizational systems, these so called non-
industrial countries have begun to compete
with the industrial giants on their own turf.
New competition from countries such as Japan,
Korea, and Brazil is having a dramatic impact
on the economic, political, and educational
systems within the United States. Examples
of the results from this new competition in-
clude rising trade deficits, an increasing
budget deficit, slow productivity growth,
stagnant real wages, and a declining share of
world markets (Young, 1988). All of these
trends constitute a threat to the American
standard of living. Unless changes are made
to increase the competitive ability of the
United States on economic and technological
grounds, the quality of life in this country
is certain to fall.
In response to the competitiveness prob-
lem, this country must strive to develop a
highly skilled, adaptable workforce that de-
velops and uses technology. This effort
would result in a renewed competitive advan-
tage through improved technologies and inno-
vative, creative, and highly educated
workers; something which may be the United
States' biggest strength. This approach is
not without its drawbacks. New technologies
are likely to replace many workers which
could result in higher unemployment. Ad-
vances in technology could also lead to a de-
skilling of the workforce which may result in
a wider gap between the workers who develop
new technologies and those who use them.
To return the United States to its for-
mer competitive status, improvements must oc-
cur in the productivity of the workforce.
Technology education has a unique role to
play in improving the productivity of the fu-
ture workforce (Technology Education Advisory
Council, 1988). In addition to providing
students with the opportunity to interact
with technological systems and processes,
technology education reinforces the content
learned in other curricular areas and en-
hances higher order thinking skills. Before
expanding on the role of technology education
in improving the productivity of the future
workforce, an examination of the productivity
issue and the impact of technology on the
workforce is needed.
IMPROVING WORKFORCE PRODUCTIVITY
The United States must improve its level
of productivity in order to become more com-
petitive. It has been said that productivity
is the main determinant of trends in living
standards (Hatsopoulos, Krugman, & Summers,
1988). Therefore, if Americans are to con-
tinue enjoying their high standard of living,
they will have to find ways to continually
increase their own productivity. Recent evi-
dence shows that competitors have been able
to increase their productivity at a much
faster rate than the U. S. For example, the
U. S. was ranked below eleven of its compet-
itors in productivity growth from 1973
through 1979 and from 1981 through 1985
(Berger, 1987; Klein, 1988). While the sta-
tistics point out weaknesses, all is not
lost. After the dismal years of the 1970s
and early 1980s, U. S. companies have shown
productivity improvements in recent years.
In 1985, the U. S. had the second highest
growth in productivity among the twelve lead-
ing industrial countries with a 5.1% increase
and in 1986 had the highest productivity
growth at 3.7% (Klein, 1988).
While the recent improvements are en-
couraging, efforts must be made to ensure
that these improvements in productivity con-
tinue. There are three primary ways to im-
prove productivity: (a) through the
development of new technologies, (b) through
increased capital expenditures, and (c)
through education and training.
IMPROVE PRODUCTIVITY THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENT
OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES
Eighty percent of the U. S. productivity
growth can be attributed to technological in-
novation (Young, 1988). A strong research
and development effort is needed to ensure
that new innovations are forthcoming. With-
out research and development expenditures, it
is doubtful that significant innovations can
be developed. While the U. S. has been suc-
cessful in developing new technologies in the
past, it not likely to continue to be suc-
cessful if current trends continue. Business
and government expenditures for civilian re-
search and development are a smaller propor-
tion of the economy in the U. S. than in
other developed countries (Berger, 1987). A
continued commitment and support for research
and development must be made if the U. S. is
to maintain its leadership in the development
of technological innovations.
IMPROVE PRODUCTIVITY THROUGH INCREASED CAPI-
TAL EXPENDITURES
While the development of technology is a
key to productivity growth, the technology is
worthless unless it is actually used. A pri-
mary reason the U. S. has lost its compet-
itive advantage in the steel and automobile
industries is because those industries have
been slow to realize that modern facilities,
new equipment, and innovative organizational
strategies are needed to keep up with the
rest of the world. In recent years, U. S.
competitors have been tooling up with modern
facilities that incorporate the latest tech-
nologies and strategies such as robotics,
computer-integrated manufacturing, just-in-
time manufacturing, and the Japanese philoso-
phy of Kaizen. At the same time, U. S. steel
and automotive industries were trying to
produce goods in antiquated facilities with
pre-World War II technologies and traditional
authoritative management strategies. The re-
sult of the unwillingness of these U. S. in-
dustries to expend the necessary capital to
build new facilities and to acquire new tech-
nologies has been a decreased share of world
markets, increased layoffs, and reduced pro-
fit margins. As an example of the discrep-
ancy between U. S. capital expenditures and
those of Japan, the Japanese spend 50% - 100%
more per employee on capital than the U. S.
To compound the problem, U. S. capital costs
50% - 75% more than Japanese capital
(Hatsopoulos, Krugman, & Summers, 1988). On
a positive note, the recent surge in produc-
tivity in the U. S. can be partially attri-
buted to the willingness of companies to
begin investing in new capital.
IMPROVE PRODUCTIVITY THROUGH EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
As stated by the PRESIDENT'S COMMISSION
ON INDUSTRIAL COMPETITIVENESS (1985), this
country has failed to develop its human re-
sources as well as other nations. This prob-
lem becomes evident when comparing our
educational system with those of other coun-
tries. Only 70% of the students in American
schools successfully complete high school
while 98% of Japanese students complete high
school (Jonas, 1987). The recent plethora of
national reports that focus on educational
reform further support the need for strength-
ening America's educational systems (Carnegie
Forum, 1986; National Commission on Secondary
Vocational Education, 1984; Parnell, 1985).
Even if the U. S. is able to continue
developing new technologies and makes the
capital expenditures necessary to utilize
those developments, great improvements in
productivity will be unlikely unless workers
have the level of education and skill needed
to handle the advanced technologies (Berger,
1987). In response to this need, educational
programs at the secondary and post-secondary
levels need to identify the knowledge and
skills that will be needed by the future
workforce to successfully work with and main-
tain the advanced technologies and develop
appropriate delivery systems for the teaching
of the new content.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON THE WORKFORCE
There are several views regarding tech-
nological advancement and its effect on the
workforce (Naylor, 1985; Rumberger, 1984).
One view is that technological advances will
be the primary source of new jobs in the fu-
ture. People read and hear about new jobs
being created in the areas of robotics, com-
puters, lasers, and optics. A common belief
is that jobs in these areas are completely
new and will result in job opportunities for
a great many workers. The second view is
that advanced technologies will vastly up-
grade the skill requirements of future jobs.
Advances in technology are believed to make
jobs much more complex and therefore, will
require higher level skills in the future. A
third view is that the development of new
technologies will result in the displacement
of massive numbers of workers. The develop-
ment of robotics and automated processes is
viewed as a means to eliminate the human
worker from the labor force.
It is true that technology is having a
definite effect on the nature and character-
istics of the workforce. New occupations are
being created while traditional occupations
are being changed or eliminated. The workers
that fill these changing occupations must up-
date their knowledge and skills to remain
employable.
A wider variety of skills are now needed
by the workforce. The diversity of occupa-
tions has increased to the point where work-
ers must do things that were once performed
by many different individuals. Future work-
ers still need to have specific technical
skills. However, employers are beginning to
want their new employees to have better basic
skills. Basic skills enhance workers' abili-
ties to learn new information and techniques
and will make the future workforce more
adaptable as advances in technology further
changes the workplace.
It is evident that technology is having
a significant impact on the workforce. How-
ever, the true nature of that impact is un-
clear. Are the above views accurate or are
they only myths? The following discussion
describes some of the impacts of technology
on the workforce and presents the uncertain-
ties that exist regarding the changes that
will occur in the
future.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON FUTURE OCCUPA-
TIONS
The impact of technology on future occu-
pations is unclear. Will the advances in
technology result in more high technology re-
lated jobs or will there be an increase in the
number of low technology related jobs? The
answer to this question is critical to the
economic and social well being of this country.
To identify the actual impact of technology on
future occupations, it is necessary to examine
the various views that currently exist.
VIEW 1: ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY JOBS ARE
GROWING AT A RAPID RATE. One view regarding
job growth says that technology-related jobs
are growing at a significant rate. Based on
Bureau of Labor statistics, the fastest grow-
ing occupations are in advanced technology
areas. As shown in Table 1, eight of the ten
fastest growing occupations may be classified
as "high technology" occupations (Kutscher,
1987). These fast growing occupations in-
clude technicians, engineers, operators, and
repairers. As a result of this information,
it would appear that advanced technologies
will be the primary source of new jobs in the
future. In fact, numerous secondary and
post-secondary schools are using this infor-
mation to develop courses in robotics, CAD,
CAM, lasers, and computers.
TABLE 1
TEN FASTEST GROWING OCCUPATIONS IN PERCENTAGE
TERMS
------------------------------------------------------
Change in Percent of
Percent Total Total
Occupation Change Employment Job Growth
-------------------------------------------------------
Computer Service Techs. 97 53,000 0.21
Legal Assistants 94 43,000 0.17
Comp. Systems Analysts 85 217,000 0.85
Computer Programmers 77 205,000 0.80
Computer Operators 76 160,000 0.63
Office Machine Repairer 72 40,000 0.16
Physical Therapy Asst. 68 26,000 0.09
Electrical Engineers 65 209,000 0.82
Civil Eng. Technicians 64 23,000 0.09
Peripheral Elect. Operators 64 31,000 0.12
-------------------------------------------------------
NOTE: Adapted from "Impact of Technology on
Employment in the United States" by R.
Kutscher, in THE FUTURE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY
ON WORK AND EDUCATION (p. 48), G. Burke and
R. W. Rumberger (Eds.), 1987, Philadelphia,
PA: The Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis.
However, describing job growth in per-
centage terms does not paint a true picture
of the impact of technology on the growth of
occupations in the future. A closer examina-
tion of Table 1 shows that while the fastest
growing occupations are growing at a high
rate, they will result in relatively few
jobs. For example, the fastest growing occu-
pation in percentage terms is computer ser-
vice technicians. While this occupation is
growing at a fantastic 97% rate, it accounts
for less than 1/4th of 1 percent of the total
projected job growth. In fact, the ten fast-
est growing occupations in percentage terms
account for less than 4% of the total job
growth. Based on this low percentage of the
total job growth, technology educators, par-
ticularly at the upper secondary and post-
secondary levels, must be careful when
planning to develop new programs which are
oriented towards these "fast growing" ad-
vanced technology occupations. It is possi-
ble that many of these new jobs will be
filled without the need for numerous advanced
technology programs. In fact, current data
suggests that there are more graduates of ad-
vanced technology programs than positions
available (Grubb, 1984; Naylor, 1985). Con-
tinued growth in enrollments may compound
that problem.
VIEW 2: LOW TECH JOBS ARE GROWING AT A
RAPID RATE. A second view regarding the im-
pact of technology on job growth suggests
that advances in technology will result in an
increase in low technology-related jobs.
This view is in direct contrast to the first
view. Based on Bureau of Labor statistics,
the fastest growing occupations are not in
advanced technology areas. As shown in Table
2, the majority of the ten fastest growing
occupations (in absolute terms) are not in
advanced technology areas (Kutscher, 1987).
For example, the fastest growing occupation
in absolute terms is building custodians.
While that occupation certainly changes as
technology advances, it is not considered a
"high tech" occupation. Advanced technology
occupations are those that require an in
depth knowledge of the theories and princi-
ples of science, engineering, and mathematics
that underlie technology. This definition
includes engineers, scientists, mathematical
specialists, engineering and science techni-
cians, and computer specialists (Rumberger &
Levin, 1985). Note that while the occupa-
tions listed in Table 2 are not growing at a
high percentage rate, they do account for a
great number of jobs. In fact, these ten
fast growing occupations will account for al-
most 25% of the total job growth in the fu-
ture.
It is true that advanced technology oc-
cupations are growing at a rapid rate al-
though the impact of that growth is less
significant because of the small number of
actual jobs that are created. One reason for
the inability of advanced technology occupa-
tions to create a large number of jobs is be-
cause of the potential of technology to
reduce the need for workers. Automated sys-
tems are being developed that are able to re-
organize traditional production processes.
The change from individual machines to com-
plete manufacturing systems has enabled em-
ployers to reduce the number of workers while
increasing productivity. For example, the
inte-
TABLE 2
TEN FASTEST GROWING OCCUPATIONS IN ABSOLUTE
TERMS
---------------------------------------------
Change inPercent
of
Percent Total Total
Occupation ChangeEmployment Job
Growth
---------------------------------------------
Building Custodians 27.5 779,000 3.0
Cashiers 47.5 744,000 2.9
Secretaries 29.5 719,000 2.8
General Office Clerks 29.6 696,000 2.7
Sales Clerks 23.5 685,000 2.7
Registered Nurse 48.9 642,000 2.5
Waiter & Waitresses 33.8 562,000 2.2
Teachers 37.4 511,000 2.0
Truck drivers 26.5 425,000 1.7
Nursing Aides &
Orderlies 34.5 423,000 1.7
---------------------------------------------
NOTE: Adapted from "Impact of Technology on
Employment in the United States" by R.
Kutscher, in THE FUTURE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY
ON WORK AND EDUCATION (p. 47), G. Burke and
R. W. Rumberger (Eds.), 1987, Philadelphia,
PA: The Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis, Inc.
gration of a robotic welder into the auto in-
dustry replaces two to three human welders
and achieves productivity gains that range
from 5:1 to as high as 20:1.
Based on the above discussion, it should
be clear that technology does impact the
total growth of occupations. Advanced tech-
nology occupations are growing at a high rate
yet they are a small fraction of the total
job growth. While low technology occupations
are not growing at as fast a rate, they con-
tribute to a greater percentage of total job
growth. Because it is possible to interpret
job growth in different ways, technology edu-
cators must use caution when determining
whether or not to emphasize advanced technol-
ogies in their curriculum. Clearly, attempt-
ing to justify technology education programs
that emphasize advanced technologies solely
because of high percentage job growth statis-
tics may be a mistake.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON SKILL REQUIRE-
MENTS
Technology will also have an impact on
the skill requirements needed for ALL jobs at
ALL levels (Rumberger, 1984). As occupa-
tional skill requirements change as a result
of technology, the education and training
needed by future and existing workers must
also change. However, are the skill require-
ments increasing or decreasing as a result of
the advances in technology? The answer to
this question may have a great impact on the
content and delivery of technology education
programs.
The literature identifies three differ-
ent views regarding the impact of technology
on skill requirements. Each of these views
will be examined as they relate to technology
education curriculum and instruction.
VIEW 1: ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY CREATES A
WIDER GAP BETWEEN HIGH SKILL AND LOW SKILL
JOBS. The first view suggests that advances
in technology will create a wider gap between
the high skill level jobs and the low skill
level jobs (Nettle, 1986; Rumberger, 1984)
which may result in a bi-modal distribution
of the workforce (Grubb, 1984). Figure 1
graphically shows the potential distribution
of occupations based on skill levels if this
view is true.
FIGURE 1. Distribution of worker skill lev-
els.
This view is built on the premise that
technology creates a need for highly trained
and educated workers to design, develop, and
maintain the new technologies. These indi-
viduals will require some type of college de-
gree which will increase the need for workers
with M.A.'s and Ph.D.'s in technical areas.
On the other end of the skill continuum are a
great number of low skilled, low paid workers
who have little need for training. This bi-
modal distribution is thought to be made up
of 80% semi skilled or unskilled workers and
only 20% highly skilled workers (Nettle,
1986).
VIEW 2: ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY CREATES
JOBS AT BOTH MIDDLE AND HIGH SKILL LEVELS.
The second view suggests that advances in
technology creates jobs at both the high and
middle skill levels (Grubb, 1984). Data col-
lected for high technology and conventional
manufacturing sectors in Texas clearly show
that the occupational distribution of ad-
vanced technology manufacturing is NOT bi-
modal. Figure 2 graphically shows the
occupational distribution between high tech-
nology and conventional manufacturing indus-
tries based on 1980 Census data. As
suggested in the first view, the need for
high skill levels increases as advanced tech-
nology is incorporated. However, in contrast
to the first view, Figure 2 also shows that
the need for middle level skills increases as
technology is incorporated.
FIGURE 2. Manufacturing occupational dis-
tribution.
NOTE: Graph developed from data in "The Band-
wagon Once More: Vocational Preparation for
High-Tech Occupations" by W. N. Grubb, 1984,
HARVARD EDUCATIONAL REVIEW, 54, p. 435. Cop-
yright 1984 by President and Fellows of
Harvard College.
While the above data is from one state
in one primary industry, the data does cor-
roborate with national data from the Bureau
of Labor Statistics (Grubb, 1984). Advanced
technology sectors do hire more technicians
and computer specialists. In addition, the
projected growth in middle to high skill
level technician jobs are higher in most high
tech industries than in conventional indus-
tries. This is especially true in the health
and information technology fields where more
technicians are being used to perform very
specific tasks, thus freeing the professional
to monitor technicians and to perform other
tasks.
As low skill level assemblers are re-
placed by middle skill level technicians, the
amount of training needed to obtain the
higher skill level positions will increase.
Figure 3 shows the difference in the amount
of education needed by the workforce in con-
ventional and high technology manufacturing
industries. An increased demand for educa-
tion at the post-secondary level can be
projected as technology is integrated into
the private sector.
VIEW 3: ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY DECREASES
THE OVERALL SKILL REQUIREMENTS OF THE
WORKFORCE. The third view suggests that ad-
vances in technology will actually decrease
the overall skill requirements needed by the
workforce (Bartel & Lichtenberg, 1987;
Faddis, Ashley, & Abram, 1982; Rumberger,
1984, 1987). While the characteristics of
future jobs will likely change, the overall
skill requirements are expected to decrease.
A general assumption
FIGURE 3. Post-secondary educational levels
needed by future workers.
NOTE: Graph developed from data in "The
Bandwagon Once More: Vocational Preparation
for High-Tech Occupations" by W. N. Grubb,
1984, HARVARD EDUCATIONAL REVIEW, 54, p. 435.
Copyright 1984 by President and Fellows of
Harvard College.
regarding the impact of technology on skill
requirements is that as technology advances,
the skills needed to work with technology
also increase. This view appears to be de-
veloped as a result of interaction with the
technological world. For example, many peo-
ple believe that a computerized word
processor is a highly technical tool that is
much more complex than the manual or electric
typewriters with which they are comfortable.
Another example involves the many backyard
mechanics who at one time were able to repair
their own automobiles. Because of the ad-
vances in technology, these mechanically in-
clined individuals are having considerable
difficulty comprehending the new technolog-
ical systems found in late model vehicles.
As technology advances it certainly ap-
pears as though the skill requirements needed
to work with those technologies also in-
crease. This statement is only partly true.
Research indicates that the impact of tech-
nology on worker skill requirements is very
different from the general assumption (see
Figure 4). While the skill requirements do
increase initially, as a technology is fur-
ther developed and refined, the skill re-
quirements needed to use that technology
actually decrease. An example of this phe-
nomenon is the computer. When the computer
was originally invented, it was a very com-
plex machine that was difficult to use. Fol-
lowing the development of technologies that
lead to the production of transistors and
then integrated circuits, the computer became
a smaller, more powerful machine that was im-
mensely more complex than the original com-
puter. However, while the computer became
much more advanced, it also became more "user
friendly." Refinements in computer technol-
ogy have led to the development of a machine
that is relatively easy to use. The trend to
simplify the use of equipment results in a
deskilling of the workforce because the tech-
nology reduces the need for much of the men-
tal and physical work needed to conduct daily
work tasks. Other examples of this deskill-
ing phenomenon can be found in computer pro-
gramming, automated production, printing,
clerical work, and machining.
FIGURE 4. Impact of technology on worker
skills.
NOTE: Adapted from "The Relationship of In-
creasing Automation to Skill Requirements" by
J. R. Bright, in TECHNOLOGY AND THE AMERICAN
ECONOMY, National Commission on Technology,
Automation, and Economic Progress, 1966,
Washington, DC: US Government Printing Of-
fice.
These three views present differing
projections of the impact of technology on
the skill requirements of the workforce.
First, technology has resulted in a decrease
in the skill requirements of some jobs. Sec-
ond, technology has resulted in an increase
in the skill requirements of other jobs.
Overall, however, it appears as though there
has been little change in the AVERAGE skill
requirements of jobs. In a recent study of
200 individual case studies, Flynn (1985)
found that while some workers' skill require-
ments have been upgraded, other workers'
skill requirements have been downgraded. It
appears as though the overall effect of tech-
nology on the skill requirements is small.
On an individual basis, however, the effect
of technology on skill requirements appears
to be quite drastic.
TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION'S ROLE IN IMPROVING
WORKFORCE PRODUCTIVITY
As previously discussed, it is critical
that productivity increase in order to regain
a competitive advantage in the global market-
place. The problem of increasing productiv-
ity is compounded by the ever changing
workplace in which a knowledgeable and
skilled workforce is needed to adapt to new
technological processes. The recent trends
in technology and the workplace suggest that
the secondary school curriculum needs modifi-
cation in order to equip students with the
knowledge and skills needed to be successful.
For example, the most effective and efficient
method of preparing the future workforce may
no longer include vocational education's tra-
ditional emphasis on specific technical job
skills. Because of the rapid and complex
changes in technological knowledge and skill,
the specific technical job skills taught in
many secondary vocational programs are obso-
lete when vocational graduates enter the
workforce. While specific technical job
skills will always be needed, they are no
longer a sufficient condition for employment.
What role can technology education play
in improving the competitive advantage of the
United States? A well designed and delivered
technology education curriculum will be able
to enhance future workforce productivity be-
cause it (a) is well suited to reinforce what
students have learned in other curricular
areas, (b) is ideal for enhancing cognitive
process abilities, and (c) promotes active
involvement with technology.
REINFORCE ACADEMIC CONTENT FROM OTHER CURRIC-
ULAR AREAS
A major goal of technology education is
to provide students with the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes needed to become pro-
ductive citizens in a highly technological
and ever changing society. As a result of
the recent advances in technology and the
changes that are occurring in the workplace,
there should be an increased emphasis on
transferable, basic skills. Future workers
need to have solid reading, writing, and com-
putational skills. Because technology educa-
tion offers students the opportunity to learn
and apply subject matter from a variety of
disciplines in realistic settings, it is well
suited to reinforce the general knowledge and
skills that are becoming increasingly impor-
tant. Technology education teachers, by the
very nature of their subject matter, incorpo-
rate reading, writing, mathematics, science,
and social studies content into their
courses. By emphasizing generic skills, aca-
demic content, and basic technical skills,
technology education students will have the
opportunity to gain the skills that are
needed to keep up with the rapid changes in
society and the workplace.
Since 1985, several state and national
reports have appeared which suggest what
skills and competencies will be needed by the
future workforce. These reports have gained
a great deal of national attention and seem
to be adding fuel to the education reform
movement of the 1980s. Because these reports
were developed with industry, government, and
education involvement, they have the poten-
tial to significantly impact the secondary
school curriculum.
The state and national workforce
projection reports discuss the changes that
are occurring in the workplace and identify
the skills and competencies needed by the
worker of the future. These desired skills
and competencies can be summarized into fif-
teen categories (Johnson, Foster, &
Satchwell, 1989).
FIGURE 5: Summary of workforce competency
reports.
NOTE: From SOPHISTICATED TECHNOLOGY, THE
WORKFORCE, AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (p. 33)
by S. D. Johnson, W. T. Foster, and R.
Satchwell, 1989, Springfield, Illinois:
Illinois State Board of Education, Department
of Adult, Vocational and Technical Education.
As shown in Figure 5, there is consider-
able consistency in the recommendations of
the workforce projection reports. As one
would expect, the basic skills of reading,
written and oral communication, and computa-
tion are identified by all of the competency
reports. As technology advances, the written
material used to support new equipment and
processes becomes more technical, and there-
fore, much more difficult to read. As a re-
sult, future workers need higher reading and
comprehension levels than the present
workforce. For example, approximately 70% of
the written material used in a cross section
of jobs requires AT LEAST a high school read-
ing level (Mikulecky, 1984) while most tech-
nical occupations require at least a 12th
grade reading level (McLaughlin, Bennett, &
Verity, 1988). The ability to communicate
effectively is also essential for productive
employment. Workers are being asked to work
in teams, deal directly with customers, and
participate in decision-making. All of these
changes increase the importance of the abil-
ity to speak and write effectively.
The worker of the future must also be
proficient in basic computational skills
which includes working with fractions, deci-
mals, proportions, and measurements. As oc-
cupations become more technical, skill with
algebra, geometry, statistics, trigonometry,
and calculus becomes essential. The impor-
tance given to these "academic" skills by the
workforce projection reports supports the
current trend to increase the integration of
the academic and the vocational/technical
areas; a trend which has been heavily sup-
ported in the technology education movement.
Evidence for the integration of academic
content into technology education curricula
can be found in each issue of THE TECHNOLOGY
TEACHER, the journal of the International
Technology Education Association. Each issue
of THE TECHNOLOGY TEACHER explicitly presents
effective ways to interface the mathematical,
scientific, and technological aspects of var-
ious technologies. The Council on Technology
Teacher Education has also supported the in-
tegration of academic content into technology
education programs through their annual
yearbook (Zuga, 1988). Possibly the best ex-
ample of the potential for integrating aca-
demic content into technology education was
provided at TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION SYMPOSIUM
XI. At this annual symposium, seventeen
presenters described their attempts to de-
velop interdisciplinary technology education
programs (Erekson & Johnson, 1989). Based on
the success of the programs that were de-
scribed at the symposium, it is clear that
technology education is a valid approach for
reinforcing basic academic skills.
ENHANCE HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS
In addition to the academic skills
needed by the worker of the future, the
workforce projection reports stress the im-
portance of cognitive process skills. Cogni-
tive process skills include the higher order
thinking skills of problem solving, decision
making, and creativity; skills which lead to
flexible behavior and the ability to learn.
It is in this area, improving student think-
ing skills, in which technology education may
have the most to contribute. In fact, it has
been suggested that improving student problem
solving skills should be a major goal of
technology education programs (Clark, 1989;
Technology Education Advisory Council, 1988;
Waetjen, 1989).
Waetjen (1989) observes that many of the
recent curriculum guides for technology edu-
cation identify problem solving as a major
teaching method for improving student's
understanding of technology and their ability
to solve technological problems. While prob-
lem solving is viewed in these curriculum
documents as a method of teaching, when used
properly it also leads to the enhancement of
student problem solving abilities. For exam-
ple, instructors typically solve problems be-
fore they are given to students in order to
eliminate potential difficulties. As a re-
sult, students complete these problems (more
appropriately called exercises) with very
little cognitive effort. However, creative
technology teachers provide their students
with ill-structured problems that require the
students to actually solve the problems.
Students are required to identify the prob-
lem, collect information, search for poten-
tial solutions, select a solution strategy,
and evaluate the result. By actively solving
realistic technological problems in technol-
ogy education courses, students are being
forced to think, reason, and make decisions.
Through these problem solving activities,
students can develop the cognitive skills
that are too often neglected in the schools
even though they are becoming prerequisites
for success in the world of work.
PROMOTE ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT WITH TECHNOLOGY
While emphasizing academic and cognitive
process skills are important goals for a
technology education program, they should not
be the sole focus. Educational reformers of
the 1980s have suggested that employers want
graduates to have only strong basic skills
and that each business will provide the nec-
essary technical training for their workers
(U. S. Department of Education, 1986).
However, recent evidence does not support
that contention.
Employers still need employees who pos-
sess a high level of technical competence.
Technical skills are essential because they
facilitate the acquisition of additional
skills. On a very practical level, when a
new technology is adopted by a company, em-
ployers tend to involve those workers who
have the greatest level of technical skill.
For example, when CNC machining is introduced
into a factory, it is common for management
to select their best machinists to learn the
new process. Consequently, technical skills
are more important than many education refor-
mers would suggest.
The lack of emphasis given to technical
skills in the workforce projection reports
suggests that these skills are a "given" for
employment. As stated by the Michigan
Employability Skills Task Force (1988):
"While not specifically addressed in the
Employability Skills Profile, the importance
of vocational-technical skills should not be
overlooked or minimized. The value of spe-
cific vocational training will, in addition
to the Profile skills, often enhance one's
employment opportunities, qualify one for
special job classifications, and lead to ul-
timate success." (p. 4) As stated by Gray
(1989), it seems that what employers mean by
basic skills is somewhat different from what
academicians mean. In the mind of most
academicians, basic skills include reading,
writing, and computation. However, there is
little doubt that, in the minds of most em-
ployers, technical skills are the most basic
job competency (Johnson, Foster, & Satchwell,
1989). Because technical skills are a neces-
sity for productive employment, technology
education instructors and curriculum develop-
ers must continue the industrial arts tradi-
tion of hands-on, experiential learning with
tools, materials, and systems. Technology
education programs may be the only place
where secondary level students can experience
and interact with technological devices and
systems.
While the relationship between technol-
ogy education curricula and traditional voca-
tional outcomes such as workforce training
and productivity have not been actively ad-
dressed by the field, technology education
does have a unique and significant role to
play in the effort to improve workforce pro-
ductivity. Clearly this role is not to pro-
vide the specific vocational and technical
skills needed for productive employment.
Those skills are best provided through post-
secondary programs in community colleges and
technical institutes. Technology education
can, however, empower its students with a
literacy that enhances future learning and
interaction with technology, that is, the
broad skills and competencies that are most
desired by employers. Through hands-on expe-
riences with technology, students can inte-
grate and apply their learning, enhance their
higher order thinking skills, and increase
their ability to interact with technological
devices and systems.
----------------
Scott D. Johnson is Assistant Professor and
Chair, Technology Education Division, Depart-
ment of Vocational and Technical Education,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Champaign, Illinois. The preparation of this
paper was supported in part by a grant from
the Illinois State Board of Education; De-
partment of Adult, Vocational, and Technical
Education; Program Improvement Section.
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Journal of Technology Education Volume 2, Number 2 Spring 1991