JVER v27n2 - The Role of Key Qualifications in the Transition from Vocational Education to Work

Volume 27, Number 2
2002


The Role of Key Qualifications in the Transition from Vocational Education to Work

S. J. van Zolingen
University of Nijmegen

Abstract

This study presents a new definition of key qualifications related to occupations based on an extensive literature search. The empirical aspect of this study describes a Delphi study focused on policy where a number of key qualifications were operationalized for three selected jobs: commercial employee at a bank, claims assessor or acceptor at an insurance company, and service mechanic. Definitions were subsequently commented on by experts from education and work in the Netherlands. Key qualifications appear to be important to enable employees who have recently started work to perform efficiently. Although, as Dutch experts believe, vocational education may play an important role in the acquisition of key qualifications, a process of lifelong learning during an employee's career is necessary to develop these further. Nontraditional instructional methods, such as project education and problem-directed education, as well as practical learning and confrontation with key problems of an occupation are especially suitable for the acquisition of key qualifications in vocational education.

Employees are being confronted in their work with constant change in the field of technology, the structure of organizations, the organization of work, and personnel management. Employers are often unable to indicate what qualifications employees will need to have in the future. There is an increasing risk that problems concerning the interface between education and work will continue to grow. As a result, there is a growing consensus about the necessity for students to acquire key qualifications in broad, initial vocational education ( Carnevale, 1991 ; Carnevale, Gainer, & Melzer, 1990 ; Nijhof & Streumer, 1994a , 1994b , 1998 ; SCANS, 1991 , 1992) . The thinking behind this is that key qualifications enable new employees to respond flexibly and effectively to changes in their work, organization, occupation, and career ( van Zolingen, 1995 ). Vocational education, according to this reasoning, will acquire the role of providing broad, initial vocational education with greater emphasis on the transfer of broad expertise and the acquisition of those skills that are necessary to be able to work competently in a particular occupation ( Blokhuis, Coeck, Vermeesch, & Vilters, 1999 ). The problem is, however, that opinions are sharply divided as to what key qualifications are, how they can be translated into national attainment targets, 1 and how and where they can best be acquired ( Kearns, 2001 ). Scarcely any empirical research has been conducted into this problem. This study examined the above questions and provides answers by means of a literature search, interviews with employees who have recently started work, and a Delphi study on policy conducted with experts from the world of education and work in the Netherlands.

Changes in the System of Work and the Need for Key Qualifications

Fiercer competition, as result of globalization, causes economic and commercial change, such as changing marketplaces, higher quality requirements, and customization. These changes lead to the use of new production technology, automation, restructuring of companies, new personnel strategies and more attention for performance ( Appelbaum & Batt, 1994 ; Den Boer & Hövels, 1999 ; Schumann, Baetghe-Kinsky, Kuhlmann, Kurz, & Neumann, 1994 ; Thompson & Warhurst, 1998 ; Zuboff, 1988 ).

As a result of all the above-mentioned changes, industry needs flexible, broadly-skilled employees who are highly skilled, can work in a less structured environment, and who are able to respond rapidly and effectively, by means of a process of lifelong learning, to the changes that are occurring in their work, organization and career ( Van Zolingen, 1995 ). These employees are expected to possess excellent social and communicative skills, a customer-friendly attitude, commercial acumen and outstanding sales skills. They must be able to adopt an assertive attitude when necessary, and also be able to work with information and with computers. They are further required to work more independently, to solve complex problems, to exercise their initiative, to reach decisions quickly, and to be able to plan their own work ( Winslow & Bramer, 1994 ). Furthermore, they must possess an awareness of quality, be able to think creatively and be sufficiently motivated to participate actively in the improvement of production processes. Loyalty and dedication play an important role in this. Unlike previous times, most employees nowadays are expected to be able and willing to continue to learn so that they can carry on working competently in their occupation ( Delors, 1996 ; Faure et al., 1972 ; OECD, 1996 ). These qualifications are also referred to by the term key qualifications.

Key Qualifications in the USA

Above mentioned changes in the system of work have also been experienced in the USA. In the late 1980s the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) became concerned at the impact of new technologies and major changes in the economy on the demand from employers for key skills, in particular workplace basics. The department realized that today's high-skill job market requires advanced academic knowledge and workplace skills and training, yet young entrants to the work force are not meeting these criteria. This led the DOL to commission two major studies: a study of changes in the workplace undertaken by the Hudson Institute, and a study of the essential generic skills required by employers undertaken by the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD). The ASTD/DOL study of work place basics was a major empirical study undertaken by a team of ten over 30 months which led to three publications; the ASTD/DOL report of 1988, a book authored by Carnevale et al. (1990) , and a book by Carnevale (1991) on America and the new economy. In the Carnevale's book 16 job skills within seven dimensions were identified for the contemporary workforce:

  1. Learning to learn including foundation skills;
  2. Academic basics including reading skills, writing skills, and computational skills;
  3. Communication including speaking skills, listening skills;
  4. Adaptability including problem-solving and creativity skills;
  5. Personal development including self-esteem skills, motivation, and personal and career development skills;
  6. Group effectiveness including interpersonal skills, negotiation skills, and teamwork skills; and,
  7. Influencing skills including organizational effectiveness skills and leadership skills.

In 1991 the Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the SCANS, commission was established. They developed a framework of key qualifications that was built upon the results of the ASTD/DOL study ( SCANS, 1992 ). According to the SCANS commission workplace know-how is made up of five competencies and a three-part foundation of skills and personal qualities that are needed for solid job performance:

Workplace Competencies.

Effective workers can productively use:

  1. Resources-knowing how to allocate time, money, materials, space, and staff.
  2. Interpersonal skills-can work in teams, teach others, serve customers, lead, negotiate, and work well with people from culturally diverse backgrounds.
  3. Information-can acquire and evaluate data, organize and maintain files, interpret and communicate, and use computers to process information.
  4. Systems-understand social, organizational, and technological systems; they can monitor and correct performance; and they can design or improve systems.
  5. Technology-can select equipment and tools, apply technology to specific tasks, and maintain and troubleshoot equipment.
Foundation Skills

Competent workers in the high-performance workplace need:

  1. Basic skills--reading, writing, arithmetic, speaking, and listening.
  2. Thinking skills-the ability to learn, to reason, to think creatively, to make decisions, and to solve problems.
  3. Personal qualities-individual responsibility, self-management and self-esteem, sociability, and integrity.

Recently, the U.S. Department of Labor and the U.S. Department of Education (2000) documented workplace skills and behaviors that have been identified by SCANS in more detail and developed a taxonomy. Levels of performance were distinguished, a comparison with the Occupational Information Network was made, and assessment tools were made available to measure the SCANS skills areas.

Key Qualifications in Europe

The economist Dieter Mertens introduced the term Schlüsselqualifikationen ' [key qualifications] in Germany in a pioneering article in 1974. He suggested that by devoting more time to key qualifications and less time to the acquisition of specific knowledge in vocational education curricula, problems concerning the interface of education and work could be reduced. This was because key qualifications would, first, increase employees' mobility (e.g., when entering the labor market or changing jobs) and second, because employees would be better able to respond to future developments that are not entirely predictable (e.g., when changes occur within jobs).

Mertens (1974) distinguished four types of key qualifications:

  1. Basisqualificationen [basic qualifications], cognitive qualifications of a higher order with a vertical transfer value in accordance with specific requirements from the particular occupation or from society (e.g., logical, analytical, structured, associative and contextual thinking; critical thinking using argumentation and discussion; cooperative behavior by mastering certain social rules and techniques).
  2. Horizontqualifikationen [horizon-broadening qualifications], e.g., being familiar with information, consisting of knowledge about what information is, and being able to gather, understand and process information.
  3. Breitenelemente [broad elements], qualifications that cover a wide field and occur in broad occupational groups (e.g., knowledge of technology and knowledge of the ARBO [Working Conditions] Act).
  4. Vintagefaktoren [age factors], which remove intergenerational educational differences (for instance, programming techniques) through adult education.

What key qualifications appear to have in common is that they become obsolete (unusable) less rapidly because they are more abstract, can be used in different jobs, and have transfer value. Key qualifications increase both the mobility and adaptability of employees. Employee adaptability increases because of a better ability to cope with unexpected problems or changes. Furthermore, employees who have key qualifications would be better able to evaluate their own work and, if necessary, exercise their initiative in order to improve it. In brief, key qualifications should make it possible for vocational education to train flexible, broadly-skilled employees, who can respond rapidly and effectively to changes in their work and on the labor market.

Since Mertens (1974) introduced the term key qualifications, it has been formulated in various ways, under various names, and with various meanings, including extra-functional qualifications ( Hurrelmann, 1975) , socio-normative qualifications ( van Hoof & Dronkers, 1980 ), berufsübergreifende Qualifikationen [occupation exceeding qualifications] ( Laur-Ernst, 1983 ), basic skills ( Nijhof & Remmers, 1989 ) and widely-applicable occupational qualifications ( De Jong, Moerkamp, Onstenk, & Babeliowski, 1990 ). There has been a great deal of criticism of the term key qualifications ( Elbers, Heckenauer, Mönikes, Pornschlegel, & Tillman, 1975 ; Geißler, 1990 ; Reetz, 1989 ; Zabeck, 1989 ). The critics asserted that (Mertens') key qualifications, independent of work situations or occupations, were too vaguely formulated, and it proved to be impossible to translate key qualifications into curricula.

A New Definition of Key Qualifications in the Netherlands

van Zolingen (1995) has given a new interpretation to the term key qualifications on the basis of a literature search. This new interpretation of key qualifications is characterized by six dimensions (see Table 1).

TABLE 1 An updated definition of key qualifications ( van Zolingen, 1995 )
Definition : Key qualifications are the knowledge, insight, skills and attitudes that are part of the permanent core of an occupation or a group of related jobs with the possibility of transfer to other, new jobs within that occupation, and of innovations within that occupation, which contribute to the development of an employee's competence and facilitate transitions within his career.
General-instrumental dimension:
  • occupational knowledge and skills that have fundamental or permanent character and that can be applied in many situations (including basic skills such as arithmetic, language and reading, general technical knowledge, general knowledge of languages, general knowledge of computing, the ability to handle information,* ability to plan work,* quality awareness,* commercial insight*)
  • interdisciplinary knowledge*
Cognitive dimension:
  • thinking and acting (identifying and solving problems,* abstract thinking,* methodical thinking,* intellectual flexibility, learning to learn, tacit skills, such as familiarity with material*)
Personality dimension:
  • individual behavior (self-reliance,* sense of responsibility,* accuracy,* self-confidence, decisiveness,* exercising initiative,* coping with stress,* creativity,* imagination, willingness to achieve, perseverance, modern citizenship)
Socio-communicative dimension:
  • communicating (ability to express oneself orally,* ability to express oneself in writing,* knowledge of modern languages*) and the ability to work together with colleagues, supervisors, and clients (social skills,* solidarity, and empathy)
Socio-normative dimension:
  • ability to adapt to the corporate culture (loyalty, identification, dedication, complying with safety measures,* willingness to take part in further learning,* presentability,* knowledge of the organization*)
Strategic dimension:
  • emancipatory behavior: showing a critical attitude to work and one's own interests* (dealing critically with choices in the technical field and the effects they have; taking an active part in decision-making and promotion of interests).
Note . Key qualifications indicated with an * have been included in my own empirical research. The others have been taken from literature relating to this topic.

van Zolingen (1995) speaks of key qualifications to emphasize their broad applicability within an occupation . This refers to their applicability in new situations (different jobs), the accessing of specific knowledge and of new knowledge, partly through increased opportunities for communication during an employee's entire career. There is, thus, talk of a horizontal component (of place); broad applicability, and of a vertical component (of time); acquisition, development and application during an employee's entire career. Key qualifications involve having the credentials necessary to practice an occupation. It is essential that key qualifications are acquired within the framework of an occupation (during initial training, during and outside work) and are further developed according to occupational content. One major advantage of the contextual acquisition of key qualifications is that, given the right learning conditions, the problem of transfer is reduced. The updated key qualifications can be distinguished from Mertens' ( 1974 ) key qualifications, on the one hand, because they are not restricted to the cognitive dimension, but also include the socio-communicative, personality, socio-normative, and strategic dimensions. On the other hand, the updated key qualifications are formulated by occupation. This also distinguishes the updated key qualifications from workplace know-how described by SCANS (1992) . Furthermore, the updated key qualifications are somewhat more geared to current developments in trade and industry, which needs assertive employees who work with great dedication, have an eye to improvements in production processes, and possess excellent social and communicative skills.

Key Qualifications Studied

Procedure

I am currently interested in which key qualifications will be important in the future, how key qualifications can be specified , if they can be learned in secondary vocational education , and how that can best be done. To answer these questions, I studied the opinions and arguments of representatives of various groupings in education, work, and government. What was important was to obtain the opinions of various parties who are dealing with this issue, and to clarify underlying arguments. This would allow various policy alternatives to emerge. With the above in mind, I decided to carry out a Delphi approach ( Linstone & Turoff, 1975 ). A Delphi study on policy consists of a heterogeneous group of experts, who during several rounds are consulted in writing and possibly are also interviewed about a particular problem in order to produce various arguments for their opinions, which may well differ, with the aim of generating policy alternatives. After an exploratory study of the literature relating to the interface between education and work, it emerged that in relation to MBO , 1 the MEAO-C(ommerce) 2 and MTS-E(lectronics) 3 specializations in particular might well be interesting cases for the study of key qualifications, because the workfields of both specializations keep changing fast as result of continuing automation, introduction of new technologies, customization and restructuring of organizations.

The MEAO-C specialization was restricted to banking and insurance. This was decided because it was not feasible to include the entire field of activity of MEAO-C school-leavers. In addition, the banking and insurance industry has been facing enormous changes in recent years as a result of automation, growing competition, and a changing organizational structure ( Tijdens, 1989 ; Tolner, Sluijs & Dankbaar, 1993 ). The MTS-E specialization was restricted to the position of ser-vice mechanic in the industrial sector. It was not feasible to involve all MTS-E school-leavers in the study. Second, the impact of the introduction of new technology is very great, particularly in the field of electronics ( Hövels & Vink, 1991 ; Peters, Nijhof & Streumer 1991 ). Third, recent research by Hövels & Van Dijk (1989) revealed that half of MTS-E school-leavers find work in the service sector.

Structure of the Study

I initially thought that the most important key qualifications could be selected and described (for MEAO-C and MTS-E school-leavers, respectively) on the basis of the literature, and that these could then be submitted to panels of experts. 4 However, both the literature and an exploratory interview round with 18 experts from educational practice and fields of activity (first pilot study, see Figure 1) 5 made it clear that it would not be possible to follow this route. It did, however, prove possible to select 25 key qualifications for the Delphi study (see key qualifications with * in Table 1). The criterion selected was that these key qualifications were considered important for MBO school-leavers who had recently started work. Key qualifications could, however, not be described for the selected specializations, since I realized that the MBO school-leavers from MEAO-C and MTS-E were working in very different jobs. This fact made it difficult to provide an unambiguous definition of the most important key qualifications for each of the two MEAO-C and MTS-E specializations. This problem had been pointed out previously by De Jong et al. (1990) . For this reason I decided to restrict the study to four initial jobs that were relevant to school-leavers from MTS-E and MEAO-C education: service mechanic, commercial bank employee, claims assessor, and acceptor at an insurance company.



Figure 1. A Delphi study on policy about key qualifications.

A second pilot study was introduced, consisting of 18 interviews with school-leavers from MBO working in one of the four above-mentioned initial jobs, so as to achieve a definition of the selected key qualifications 6 (see Figure 1). During these interviews various task areas were distinguished within the selected jobs. For each task area interviewees were asked if they had called on one or more of the selected key qualifications and, when this was the case, school-leavers were asked to define this as clearly as possible in their own words. 7

The key qualifications for employees who had recently started their careers were then described with the aid of these data. These key qualifications described by school-leavers formed the starting point for the two subsequent Delphi rounds. This resulted in two sets of descriptions on which experts agreed: The first being a description of the key qualifications which MTS-E school-leavers who had recently started work had to have; and, the second a description of the key qualifications which MEAO-C school-leavers who had recently started work needed to possess.

In the first Delphi round a questionnaire was sent to 53 experts from the world of education and work 8 (see Figure 1). After the questionnaire had been submitted and processed, a one-day work conference was held. Results of the questionnaire formed the basis for discussion between experts from the field of education and work. Fifteen experts (per sector) from the questionnaire round who had answered the questionnaire comprehensively and who appeared to be enthusiastic and had considerable knowledge were asked to take part in the second Delphi round to exchange opinions about the questions asked and substantiate them with arguments. Ten experts took part in the industry work conference. Nine experts took part in the banking and insurance world work conference. At the end of the study a short questionnaire based on results of the work conference was sent to all panel members. The object was to reach a definition to which everyone could agree of the most important selected key qualifications of MTS-E school-leavers and MEAO-C school-leavers who had recently started work.

Results

The Term "Key Qualifications"

For a further profile of what key qualifications are, it is important to draw attention to the following aspects. What clearly emerges from the study is that one characteristic of key qualifications is that they form a whole. When, for instance, a service mechanic repairs a fault, he has to use various key qualifications, such as methodical thinking, problem solving, the ability to handle information, social skills, commercial insight and quality awareness, which are used in correlation to achieve the main objective (keeping the customer satisfied) rapidly and efficiently. In other words, their integrated nature is characteristic of key qualifications.

Second, it has proved necessary to formulate key qualifications within the context of an occupation, since the same key qualification is interpreted differently in different occupations ( De Jong et al. 1990 ). A service mechanic's commercial sense may be limited specifically to cost consciousness. A commercial employee working in a bank, however, is expected in this context to possess a sales mentality . In other words, key qualifications are occupation-linked. The acquisition of key qualifications takes place in the context of learning an occupation. It is a process of lifelong learning, the basis of which is laid down in the family and is continued within the framework of a specific occupation in MBO and during the employee's further career both in and outside work. Key qualifications contain both general elements and elements related to learning an occupation, and both formal and informal learning processes play a role in the acquisition of key qualifications. They are related to the personal development of individuals (inasmuch as this is related to a specific occupation).

Third, key qualifications have transfer value. They broaden the deployment range of employees in work, and employees are able to acquire new specific knowledge more quickly; in the context of this study this is known as multi-functionality. With the aid of interdisciplinary knowledge in the field of process engineering, for instance, a service mechanic with MTS-E education can settle into a new job quickly, for example, installing central heating. A basic knowledge of some software programs enables a commercial employee working in a bank with a background of MEAO-C education to learn quite quickly how to use his word processor and how to call up and process client data. Broad expertise improves communication with colleagues from other disciplines and enhances working in interdisciplinary groups.

In brief, key qualifications enable employees to respond more quickly and efficiently to (a) changes in their work, thanks to their broad expertise and interdisciplinary knowledge, (b) (unpredictable) changes on the labor market, because the new specific knowledge that is required can be acquired efficiently and effectively on the basis of key qualifications, and (c) transitions within a career. Key qualifications increase the mobility of employees.

The Importance of Key Qualifications

From the Delphi study on policy it appears that the 53 experts found key qualifications important to enable employees to work competently (Table 2). The experts who were consulted during the empirical study mentioned such key qualifications as self-reliance, responsibility, accuracy, quality awareness, social skills, and a willingness to take part in further learning, for all categories studied (service mechanic, commercial employee, acceptor and claims assessor) as being important to very important (values of 4.5 or higher on a scale of 1-5; 1=totally unimportant, 2=somewhat unimportant, 3=not important/not unimportant, 4=somewhat important, 5=very important). The ability to handle information and to cope with stress were also mentioned. A service mechanic must also specifically have knowledge and cognitive skills such as problem solving, methodical thinking, as well as exercising initiative and the ability to be decisive and creative. A commercial employee, an acceptor and a claims assessor must, also especially have communicative skills and commercial insight, and they must be presentable. It was the view of experts that it is no longer possible to succeed without key qualifications either in the labor market or selection processes.

TABLE 2
Mean importance attached to key qualifications by experts from work
Experts
Key qualifications Industry Banking Insuranc
(n=14) (n=14) e(n=4)
General-instrumental dimension
Ability to handle information 4.54 4.50 4.25
Ability to plan work 3.93 3.77 3.50
Interdisciplinary knowledge 4.14 3.93 3.25
Quality awareness 4.71 4.79 4.50
Commercial insight 3.93 4.71 4.50
Motivation for lifelong learning 4.79 4.86 4.25
Cognitive dimension
Abstract thinking 4.29 3.21 3.25
Methodological thinking 4.71 4.07 3.75
Solving problems 4.86 4.21 4.50
Personality dimension
Self-reliance 4.79 4.79 4.75
Sense of responsibility 4.86 4.93 4.75
Accuracy 4.79 4.71 4.50
Decisiveness 4.57 4.21 5.00
Exercising initiative 4.71 4.36 5.00
Coping with stress 4.50 4.64 4.25
Creativity 4.57 4.29 4.25
Socio-communicative dimension
Social skills 4.57 4.71 4.75
Ability to express self orally - 4.57 4.75
Ability to express self in writing 4.00 4.00 4.75
Knowledge of modern languages 3.71 3.50 2.25
Socio-normative dimension
Complying with safety measures 4.71 4.71 2.50
Presentability 4.14 4.79 3.25
Knowledge of work organization 3.71 3.86 3.25
Strategic dimension
Showing critical attitude toward work and 4.14 4.31 3.75
one's self interests
1=totally unimportant, 2=somewhat unimportant, 3=not important/not unimportant, 4=somewhat important, 5=very important; important to very important ? 4.5

A brief sketch of the profile of an MTS-E school-leaver who recently started work as a service mechanic with the necessary key qualifications to be able to work effectively reads as follows:

A service mechanic has broad expertise and some knowledge of mechanics, process engineering, and software programs. A service mechanic is able to apply his/her knowledge effectively in practice, both in repairing faults and in relations with clients. A service mechanic repairs faults according to certain priorities (in small companies) or depending on the order in which they come in via a dispatcher (in larger companies). A service mechanic repairs a fault independently, if possible. When a fault is identified, a service mechanic works 229 systematically, forming a picture of the fault as a part of the whole system, by looking, listening (also to the client!), measuring and systematically eliminating possible causes until the actual cause of the fault is located. If this process takes too long, a service mechanic takes the initiative promptly and calls in the help of other people (the helpdesk or colleagues). A service mechanic then repairs the fault while bearing in mind the costs involved. A service mechanic can, when necessary, devise creative temporary solutions. Whenever parts have to be ordered first, a service mechanic makes a clear agreement with the client. If necessary, a service mechanic provides the client with information about the operation and maintenance of the equipment. In addition, normal and preventive maintenance is carried out and, if required, new equipment is installed. A service mechanic is aware that he must do a good job (repair a fault satisfactorily the first time, finish off his work efficiently, tidy up afterwards, and keep the client well informed) and must appear presentable to the client. A service mechanic is flexible enough to service equipment at the weekend or at night, if that suits the customer better, but the service mechanic can also stand up for himself in a positive sense when the customer is too demanding. If the knowledge of a service mechanic is inadequate, the service mechanic indicates promptly that he/she needs a refresher course. A service mechanic is motivated to keep abreast of developments in his field, partly on his own, and partly by following a course. A service mechanic completes his administration accurately each day and also handles his tools with care. A service mechanic works together with colleagues when necessary and regularly exchanges details with them about repairs. If relations with clients are poor, the service mechanic takes the initiative to do something about this.

Interpretation of Key Qualifications by Occupation

On the basis of data from the Delphi study, the most important key qualifications that MTS-E and MEAO-C school-leavers must possess were described comprehensively. For the first group, the basis was the data gathered from the service mechanics that had recently started work, from experts in the industrial sector, and from educational experts with knowledge of MTS-E education. For the second group, the basis was data gathered from the commercial employees-acceptors and claims assessors-who had recently started work, from experts in the banking and insurance world, and from educational experts with knowledge of MEAO-C education. Due to a lack of space, only the key qualifications ability to express oneself orally and abstract thinking are mentioned as examples.

Experts defined ability to express oneself orally of an MEAO-C school-leaver as follows:

Employees at the beginning of their career are able to carry out various sorts of conversation with clients (informative, advisory, sales, complaints) by telephone or in person in relation to standard products. They are also able to participate actively in (work) consultations and group conversations.
The ability to express oneself orally of an MTS-E school-leaver reads, according to the experts, as
a mechanic is able to communicate clearly and unambiguously (about technology) with customers and colleagues.

The key qualification abstract thinking was not considered important enough for the MEAO-C school-leavers to describe it separately, whereas this key qualification was considered very important for MTS-E school-leavers. Abstract thinking for MTS-E school-leavers was defined as

a service mechanic is able to visualize the operation of a system and its component parts. For example, a service mechanic is able to localize a fault by visualizing the operation of the equipment in this application, taking into account the production process, and then to look, listen and measure, possibly using a diagram or a service manual.

Acquiring Key Qualifications

Secondary vocational education (both theory and practical components) must play a central role in the acquisition of key qualifications in the view of the 53 experts from education and work that were interviewed. There are clear indications of a correlation between the nature of key qualifications and the place where they can best be acquired. The acquisition or further development of the cognitive and socio-communicative dimensions in particular should mainly take place in secondary vocational education.

For the dimensions distinguished, various learning situations are considered suitable (within school or during work placement). Work placement is specifically mentioned in order to further develop social skills and learn how to handle information. Key qualifications from the cognitive dimension (e.g., problem solving, methodical thinking), and general-instrumental dimension (e.g., ability to plan one's work, and having interdisciplinary knowledge), as well as the key qualifications the ability to express oneself in writing and knowledge of modern languages from the socio-communicative dimension can be acquired, experts claim, to a great extent within school. For most of the remaining key qualifications only a theoretical basis can be laid down in secondary vocational education. These will be further developed in practice during and outside work. This relates especially to key qualifications from the socio-normative, strategic, personality, and a few from the general instrumental dimensions. The key qualifications that the experts believe are acquired or further developed specifically during work are decisiveness, the ability to cope with stress, exercising initiative, a critical attitude toward work and one's own interests. Finally, it is striking that in the view of the experts the pre-school family situation plays a crucial role in the acquisition of the key qualifications of creativity, abstract thinking. One expert even believes, "You either have it or you don't" when you come to school.

The next question is, "How key qualifications can best be acquired?" The Delphi study was restricted to considering the way in which key qualifications could be acquired along formal learning routes. Experts showed a preference for traditional instruction methods such as lecturing, for the acquisition of key qualifications from the cognitive dimension, such as abstract thinking, planning, problem solving, handling information, and interdisciplinary knowledge, and key qualifications from the communicative dimension, such as the ability to express oneself in writing, and a knowledge of modern languages. For the remaining key qualifications from the personality dimension, the socio-normative dimension, and social skills, experts mainly advised practical learning (outside school, while learning one's occupation in practice, or after school during work) oral instruction methods, such as project education, problem-solving education and, in addition, participatory learning or learning to solve core problems. Application in the work situation was also considered necessary for the acquisition of these key qualifications. When these key qualifications are acquired outside school while learning an occupation in practice, the experts feel that it is necessary, on the basis of one or more clear assignments, that more high-quality work placements or training places are experienced in organizations that differ in their organizational structure. The link-up between theoretical and practical learning is essential here. Another form found to be very suitable in this context is participatory learning, 9 especially for the development of self-reliance among students.

One significant conclusion, in the view of the experts consulted, was that most of the key qualifications can best be acquired in secondary vocational education and through nontraditional instructional methods within the context of an occupation. For example, they pointed quite frequently to the possibilities of project education in which key qualifications such as social skills, self-reliance, problem-solving, and decisiveness could be acquired while learning all the elements of an occupation in their natural correlation.

Discussion

In view of the growing need for flexible, broadly-skilled employees and broadened vocational education, the term key qualifications has been given a new interpretation in this study. The idea of key qualifications as general skills (independent of occupations), as advocated in particular by Mertens (1974) , has been abandoned. To practice an occupation effectively, it is necessary to have key qualifications (broad expertise and contextualized general skills), as well as specific expertise. The term key qualifications encompasses six dimensions: general-instrumental, cognitive, personality, socio-communicative, socio-normative, and strategic. The substance of key qualifications must be determined for each occupation separately. They are contextualized within an occupation. The social skills that a service mechanic must have differ from those that a commercial employee needs to possess.

One disadvantage of the Delphi method employed for this study was that the key qualifications had to be mentioned separately, whereas they are used together within an occupation. It would, therefore, it seems sensible for a follow-up study to identify core problems. Core problems incorporate the complexity of work situations (Laur-Ernst, 1983 , 1984 ; Nieuwenhuis, 1991 ; Onstenk, 1997 ; Onstenk, Moerkamp, Voncken, & van den Dool, 1990 ). Core problems are complex problems and dilemmas that are central to the practice of an occupation. They are problems that an employee regularly comes across, which are characteristic of that occupation, and for which employee are expected to have a solution. They involve considerations and choices relating to dilemmas, where the application of knowledge and skills and the use of the appropriate register of actions will determine whether someone is a more or a less professional worker. Core problems are characterized by uncertainty and the balancing of conflicting interests in complex situations, in which choices have to be made time and again. Key qualifications play a central role in dealing with core problems.

Core problems could reduce the problem of translating key qualifications into curricula in vocational education. By confronting students with realistic or simulated core problems, they could acquire the necessary key qualifications at the same time. The Delphi study revealed that several authors ( Laur-Ernst, 1984 ; Mulder, 1997 ; Onstenk et al., 1990 ) and experts are of the opinion that confrontation with core problems could stimulate the acquisition of key qualifications in secondary vocational education.

The first step toward developing an instrument to identify the core problems of an occupation has meanwhile been taken by Blokhuis and van Zolingen (1997) . They identified among other things the core problems of the service manager working in a garage and of the travel employee working independently in a travel agency, by conducting extensive interviews with the employees and by means of a questionnaire. Further study is required into the question of whether these core problems should be incorporated into the Dutch national qualification structure 10 by formulating national attainment targets, or in some other way outside the national attainment targets. Blokhuis and Van Zolingen suggested a number of possible scenarios.

A new and promising view that agrees with the interest of Blokhuis and van Zolingen (1997) in core problems, and with the description of key qualifications of van Zolingen based on occupations has been developed by Stasz ( 1997 , 1998 ; Statz, McArthur, Lewis, & Ramsey, 1990 ; Statz, Ramsey, Eden, DaVanzon, Farris, & Lewis, 1993 ; Statz, Ramsey, Eden, Melamind, & Kaganoff, 1996 ). In the 1990s Statz added a fresh view to the research on key qualifications in the U.S. She believed that the concept of skill requirements used to analyze jobs and individuals (e.g., SCANS, 1991 , 1992 ), ignores the work context and the fact that workplaces are shaped by human choice. Learning work skills is a social activity and the traditional conception of skills pays too little attention to the possibilities of workplace reforms that might improve skills and productivity. Stasz takes a socio-cultural perspective and constructivist view (see also Darrah, 1992 , 1994 , 1995 ; Lave & Wenger, 1991 ; Orr, 1996 ; Wenger, 1998 ). She views skills as features of the workplace, as a social system, and not just as features of individuals or jobs. It is all about how people actually work and how workplaces shape work and learning. Stasz (1998) tries to improve the understanding of skills as they are constituted in technical work both by extending the theoretical conceptions of skills and by providing empirical observation of skills in practice. Like van Zolingen (1995) , Statz focuses her research on problem solving, communications, and teamwork.

However, while generic skills (key qualifications) are identifiable in all jobs, their specific characteristics and importance vary between jobs. The characteristics of problem solving, team work and communication requirements are related to job demands, which in turn depend on the purpose of the work, the tasks that comprise the job, the organization of the work, and other aspects of the work context. (p. 198)
Stasz observes and interviews individual workers as well as senior managers, staff, line managers and human resource personnel to get a full picture of the work as it is socially constructed or defined in the workplace. Stasz research seems promising because she has a holistic view of occupations and working people that seems to give a much fuller picture of reality of the workplace today.

Experts were of the opinion that nontraditional instructional methods, such as problem-directed learning and project education, as well as simulation and practical learning, are very suitable for acquiring key qualifications in vocational education. A heterogeneous open curriculum would, therefore, seem to be most suitable for the acquisition of key qualifications in vocational education ( Heidegger & Rauner, 1989 ; Laur-Ernst, 1989 ). This type of curriculum would be flexible in the use of instructional methods, the content of teaching material, and the alternation of theory and practical learning. Attention is being paid to the link-up between the student experiences (by means of project education) on the one hand, and their future occupations (by being confronted with core problems) on the other. And there is in this curriculum a new balance between the acquisition of knowledge and skills. A few examples of developments in the direction of such a curriculum are the work of Stasz (1998) in the U.S., work on apprenticeships in the U.S. ( Bailey, 1993 ; Hamilton & Hamilton, 1992a , 1992b ) and the U.K. ( Ainley & Rainbird, 1999 ) and the work of De Bruijn and Moerkamp (1997 ) and Mulder (1997) in the Netherlands.

In fact Stasz' (1998) ideas about teaching generic skills (key qualifications) in the U.S. are much like those of a heterogeneous open curriculum. Stasz believes that generic skills (key qualifications) must be defined and taught in ways that are contextually authentic. She proposes methods such as properly designed learning environments within schools based on constructivist views, traditional apprenticeships, and cognitive apprenticeships. And within schools teachers adopt a variety of non-didactic teaching techniques. Such as coaching, one-on-one tutoring, and modeling. Teacher preparation and staff development in the future should be in continuous contact with experts and developments in the world of work. At the moment few teachers appear to have adopted new instructional methods and their knowledge of the world of work is insufficient.

The U. S. Department of Labor has funded a series of school-to-work demonstration projects (named job performance learning) designed to help change the way students learn basic workplace skills by applying the principles behind the German system, particularly the use of workplaces as learning environments and the meaningful interrelation of learning and work. Each project involved work-based learning strategies that combine work and classroom learning (Hamilton & Hamilton, 1992a , 1992b ).

In the U.K. the 'Modern Appreticeship programs' are an example of a new method with the aim to acquire key qualifications (named key skils in the U.K.) in an authentic learning environment ( Ainley, & Rainbird, 1999 ). In Modern Apprenticeships on- and off the job training are integrated. For example assignments designed in school were expected to be completed with the assistence of both college staff and workplace supervisors. The Modern Apprenticeship is designed to be an integrated programme of vocational education and training which will allow progression from craft to technician, and possibly to graduate, levels.

Since 1995, the year in which this study was published in the Netherlands, many positive developments in Dutch vocational education have indeed occurred, which are moving in the direction of the above scenario. These include more attention to project education, problem-directed education, supervised independent learning, and learning in task groups ( De Bruijn & Moerkamp, 1997 ). Mulder (1997) recently conducted research into the optimal structure of practical learning situations for vocational education. She too points to the importance of a diversity of instructional methods, and confrontation with and reflection upon core problems. The specification and application of core problems in vocational education, however, still require a great deal of study. One aspect that cannot be overlooked, mentioned by Stasz (1998) in the U.S. and also by Van Zolingen and Mulder in the Netherlands, is the necessity for further, continuing professionalization of teachers, who will have to implement all these changes in their schools ( Kwakman, 1999 ).

Developments in the area of core problems and the growing attention in The Netherlands for the close cooperation between business and vocational education expressed in the 1996 Adult Educational and Vocational Training Bill (in Dutch, WEB) are reflected in the focus of the federal policy of the United States in school-based vocational education and training in the 1990s that is characterized by more emphasis on integration of vocational and academic education, articulation of secondary and post-secondary education, and collaboration of education, business, and labor. U.S. legislation consists of three Acts: the 1990s Amendments to the Carl Perkins Act, Goals 2000 and the 1994 School-to-Work Opportunities Act ( Copa, 1998 ). The School-to-Work Opportunities Act is designed to improve student learning, in-school retention, and transition to the workplace by improving the quality and relevance of education for all students through experiences that integrate school-based and work-based learning and improve students' knowledge of and access to career opportunities ( Stern, Finkelstein, Stone, Latting, & Dornsife, 1995 ). A big difference between the U.S. and the Netherlands is of course the national qualification structure that gives direction to the transition from school to work on a national level in the Netherlands and the huge diversity of initiatives concerning the transition from school to work throughout the U.S.

A quite different point of discussion is whether the attention that trade and industry is paying to key qualifications corresponds to the ideas about students' personal development that can be found in the old socio-cultural ideal ( Brater & Bauer, 1990 ; Hofland, Jarvis, & Griffin, 1998 ; Jansen, 1994 ). Although the experts in this study want young employees with a particular type of personal development, it is not clear whether these employees will be able to use and further develop all their key qualifications in their work too. Employees are often faced with a heavy workload, few opportunities for learning on the job, either formally or informally, an absence of career planning, poor communication and promotion of interests, and short, temporary employment contracts. Moreover, there is no question of a workplace that provides a powerful learning environment where key qualifications can be acquired or further developed ( Nieuwenhuis & Onstenk, 1994 ). This raises the question to what extent vocational education must gear itself toward the (limited) need of trade and industry for broadly-qualified employees.

Endnotes

1. Since 1997 the Dutch system of vocational education has been restructured in one national qualification structure consisting of four levels and two learning trajectories, school-based vocational training (like senior secondary vocational education) and a dual learning trajectory (like apprenticeships). In 1997, 700 different qualifications were registered. 19 national bodies for vocational education are responsible for vocational education in a specific sector. Social partners (especially employers) are primarily responsible for determining occupational profiles. National bodies are responsible for translating these into vocational educational profiles and attainment targets for specific qualifications in the qualification structure. Schools for vocational and adult education in a specific region (in total 46 ROCs) remain responsible for the actual curriculum designed to attain these. Traditionally, the involvement of companies in full-time education was limited to practical training periods. Now social partners are involved in the development of the curriculum as well for instance in creating vocational training profiles. In the Netherlands vocational education is becoming a shared responsibility between the educational system and business.

MBO: Middelbaar Beroepsonderwijs . Upper Secondary Vocational Education.

2. MEAO: Middelbaar Economisch en Administratief Onderwijs : Upper Vocational Secondary Education in Business and Adminstration.

3. MTS: Middelbare Technische School : Technical Secondary School.

4. Experts from industry, banking, or insurance had to meet the following criteria: At least 2 years experience in their job, a broad knowledge of the job that were being researched, knowledge of the qualificatiosn needed by the MBO school-leavers, knowledge of the ties of their company with the MBO schools, knowledge of the careers of MBO school-leavers, and knowledge of personnel problems involving these jobs. Educational experts had to meet the following criteria: At least 6 month experience in a commission for curriculum development, and teacher in the MBO.

5. Ten interviews were conducted with experts from the field of activity, including AKZO (now AKZO NOBEL), Océ, KEMA, Philips, AMRO (now ABN/AMRO), RABO, and eight interviews with experts from the world of education, including teachers, work placement supervisors, a student counselor, and two deputy principals of MTS and MEAO institutes.

6. Eighteen interviews were conducted before the Delphi rounds and were composed of: four extensive interviews with MEAO school-leavers who recently started work in a bank, six extensive interviews with MEAO school-leavers recently starting work in an insurance company or with a broker, and eight extensive interviews with MTS school-leavers who had recently started work in the service sector.

7. I have explained the working method followed on the basis of the initial job of service mechanic. In the course of extensive interviews the work of service mechanics was mapped out. Finally, 12 task areas were distinguished: receiving faults, looking for faults, repairing faults, finishing work on faults, reporting faults, installing new equipment and adjustments, providing advice to users, carrying out maintenance, work preparation, work consultation, maintaining contact with clients, colleagues or supervisor, and education. Service mechanics were also asked which of the 25 selected key qualifications were needed for each of task area, and they asked to define these. In the case of the task area looking for faults it was, for instance, the following key qualifications in particular that appeared important: abstract thinking, methodical thinking, problem solving, handling information, decisiveness, exercising initiative, social skills and understanding of the organization. The task area providing advice to users mainly required social skills, ability to express oneself orally, decisiveness, commercial insight, and understanding of the organization.

8. The 53 participants consisted of 14 experts from the field of activity of MTS-E students, 6 experts from MTS education, 4 experts from the service structure of MTO, 18 experts from the field of activity of the MEAO-C students, 6 experts from MEAO education, and 5 experts from the service structure of MEAO.

9. Alternation of theory and practical learning.

10. See Endnote 1.

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S. J. VAN ZOLIHGEN is Assistant Professor, Department of Business, Nijmegen School of Management, University of Nijmegen, 6500 HK Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9108, The Netherlands. e-mail: s.vanzolingen@nsm.kun.nl